Method of making large-volume CaF2 single crystals for optical elements with an optic axis parallel to the (100)- or (110)-crystal axis and CaF2 single crystal made thereby

ABSTRACT

The method for making single crystals, especially CaF 2  crystals, includes tempering, in which the crystal is heated at &lt;18 K/h to a temperature of 1000° C. to 1350° C. and held at this temperature for at least 65 hours with maximum temperature differences within the crystal of &lt;0.2 K. Subsequently the crystal is cooled with a cooling rate of at maximum 0.5 K/h above a limiting temperature between 900° C. to 600° C. and then further below this limiting temperature at maximum 3 K/h. The obtained CaF 2  crystals have refractive index uniformity &lt;0.025×10 −6  (RMS) in a (111)-, (100)- and/or (110)-direction and a stress birefringence of less than 2.5 nm/cm (PV) and/or a stress birefringence of less than 1 nm/cm (RMS) in the (100)- or (110)-direction. In the (111)-direction the stress birefringence is &lt;0.5 nm/cm (PV) and/or the stress birefringence is &lt;0.15 nm/cm (RMS).

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to a method of making optical componentsor elements from CaF₂ with parallel (100)- or (110)-oriented optic axes(principle direction) by tempering at elevated temperatures and suitablyadapted cooling. The invention also relates to the CaF₂ crystals made bythe method and to the optical components made from the crystals.

2. Related Art

Calcium fluoride is used as material for optical components forVUV-applications in microlithography, like a wafer stepper or excimerlaser. The crystals are the starting material for making lenses, prismsand other components, which are used in optics for imaging the smallestof structures for making integrated circuits, e.g. computer chips. Inorder to attain the required imaging quality, this optical material hasvery high specifications. Conventionally the non-uniformity of orvariations in the refractive index Δn should be no more than 1×10⁻⁶ andthe stress birefringence must be clearly below 1 nm/cm.

The stress optical tensor gives the connection between the mechanicalvariables (such as stress) and the optical effects caused by them (suchas the stress birefringence SDB) in crystals (direction-dependent). Thatmeans that stresses of equal magnitude in single crystal material canlead to clearly different stress birefringence and non-uniformities inthe index of refraction depending on the crystallographic orientationand/or the observation direction. For these reasons up to now componentswere used in the application or usage direction, in which the minimalstress birefringence is observed. For calcium fluoride crystals thatdirection is the (111)-direction. Thus currently materials for lensblanks are used exclusively in the (111)-orientation (and/or near the(111)-direction for cubes).

The experiments of J. H. Burnett, Z. H. Levine, E. L. Shirley, describedin “Intrinsic birefringence in calcium fluoride and barium fluoride”,Physical Rev. B 64 (2001), 241102 have shown that calcium fluoride hasan intrinsic birefringence. This effect strongly increases near the bandedge of the material and leads to significant imaging errors usingapplication wavelengths of 157 nm. In order to compensate for theintrinsic birefringence, the objective manufacturer combines lenses ofdifferent crystal orientation. Furthermore the lens blanks, rectangularprisms and prisms in general must be made in different crystalorientations, particularly in the (100)-orientation and (110)orientation.

The specifications for not-(111)-oriented products regarding the opticalquality, particularly the index of refraction uniformity and the stressbirefringence, are comparable with the specifications, which arerequired of (111)-material. Generally these specifications regarding thequality for not-(1111)-oriented products are not equally difficult toattain. The residual stresses in material for (100) products and/or(110)-oriented products are generally about 80 to 90% less than for(111)-oriented products, in order to attain the same stress doublerefraction or birefringence.

Various possibilities for making single crystals for use as opticalelements are known and the principles regarding this use of singlecrystals are described, e.g., in the textbook Wilke-Bohm, “CrystalGrowth (Kristalizüchtung)”, Harri Deutsch Press, ISBN 3-87144-971-7.Single crystals can be made from the gas phase, the melt, solution or asolid phase by diffusion and/or re-crystallization processes accordingto very different methods.

Suitable CaF₂ blanks or semi-finished elements are made in a multi-stepprocess. The prerequisite is to provide a CaF₂ powder as startingmaterial, which meets the highest specifications for chemical purity.Traces of critical cations and/or anions may only be contained insub-ppm amounts or for less crucial purities up to a few ppm. Thispowder is usually subjected to a drying stage in vacuum. Interferingresidual oxygen is removed from the CaF₂ by means of an added secondmaterial, by a subsequent heating by means of a so-called scavengerreaction. Scavenger substances are, e.g. ZnF₂, PbF₂ or other suitablefluorides or fluorine-containing gas.

The conventional methods for making calcium fluoride single crystals onan industrial scale include, e.g. the Bridgman-Stockbarger method, theVertical Gradient Freeze method, the Naken-Kyropoulos method and theCzochralski method. In these methods polycrystalline material is meltedin a vessel or crucible. Subsequently the melt is very slowly allowed tosolidify in a directed manner, in order to allow the crystals to form.Subsequent cooling must be conducted so that as little as possiblethermal stresses, which produce crystal defects, are generated in thecrystal.

To fulfill the high specifications for VUV applications the crystals orparts of them undergo a further temperature treatment below the meltingpoint in order to reduce crystal defects and attain a reduced stressbirefringence and high refractive index uniformity. During this processcharacterized as tempering the still-present defects such asdislocations or small angle grain boundaries are clearly reduced at theelevated temperature in the crystal by mechanical deformation anddiffusion processes. The subsequent cooling stage entirely determinesthe obtained quality level.

The tempering can be performed as a process step directly in the crystalgrowth apparatus or also as a separate process in a special oven.

Typical procedures for tempering calcium fluoride were already describedin EP 0 939 147 A2 or in U.S. Pat. No. 6,332,922 B1. Especially specialtemperature and time conditions are described for improving the stressbirefringence and index of refraction uniformity of calcium fluoridecrystals. However the described methods do not provide crystals, whichhave the required quality to fulfill the actual specifications formicrolithography with wavelengths of 193 nm and/or 157 nm, which havedeveloped in the meantime.

The (111)-orientation is preferred for blanks or semi-finished articlesbased on the anisotropy of the optical stress properties according tothe disclosures in EP 0 942 297 A2. The (111)-, (100)- and(110)-directions were tested. It was found that only the (111)-disk hadstress birefringence values approximately in the required range whenCaF₂ disks having the different directions were tested under the sameheat treatment conditions.

For BaF₂ disks it was shown that the attained reduction of the stressbirefringence for the (111)-disk was substantially greater than that forthe not-(111)-oriented disks.

As is the case with CaF₂ the required quality cannot currently beattained with an optical principle direction that is different from(111).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It is an object of the present invention to provide calcium fluoridecrystals of optical quality, which is required for applications with anoptical principle direction different from the (111)-crystal axis,especially along the (100)- or (110)-axis, in microlithography,especially at wavelengths below 250 nm, particularly at 193 nm orshorter, by tempering at elevated temperatures in a suitable oven.

It is a further object of the present invention to minimize residualstress and non-uniformities in the crystal material, in order to obtaina low-defect crystal with the smallest possible residual stresses, whosestress birefringence is greater than 1 nm/cm in no direction and whoserefractive index uniformity Δn is less than 5*10⁻⁷ in every direction,by deformation and curing processes in the crystal at elevatedtemperatures.

Another object of the present invention is to not only prevent areduction of light transmission at wavelengths under 250 nm or of 193 nmor shorter in comparison to not tempered raw material, but in contrastto even attain an improvement by the temperature treatment (tempering).Moreover it is necessary to prevent formation of absorption andscattering centers during the temperature treatment.

Also avoiding the formation and removing of new so-called glide bands isanother aim of the present invention. Glide bands are typically crystaldefects, which arise by a uniform plastic deformation along amaterial-type deformation plane and direction and which have locally avery high dislocation density in comparison to their surroundings andlead to optical non-uniformities and stress birefringence.

These objections are attained by the methods described in the appendedclaims.

It has been shown that the crystal defects in CaF₂ may be sufficientlyreduced in order to attain the above-desired objects when the crystal isheated to temperatures over 1000° C., and held or maintained at the settemperature for at least 65 hours, preferably at least 75 hours. Howeverholding times of at least 80 hours are particularly preferred. Accordingto the invention it has been found that opposite to the current notionsthese extended holding times are required in contrast to the currentlyknown processes, in order to allow sufficient time for the requiredrelaxation processes in the crystals.

The set holding temperature according to the invention is at least 1000°C., preferably at least 1050° C. However temperatures of at least 1080°C. or 1100° C. are particularly preferred. An appropriate upper limitfor the holding temperature is a maximum of 1350° C., especially 1300°C. However a maximum temperature of 1250° C. or 1200° C. is especiallypreferred. It has also proven advantageous according to the invention toensure that there are no or only minimal temperature differences withinthe crystal during the holding time, i.e. temperatures throughout theentire crystal volume are as nearly equal or uniform as possible.

The extreme requirements for freedom from stress in the crystal areespecially fulfilled when the static temperature gradients in theapparatus are reduced as well as the dynamic temperature gradients. Thestatic temperature gradients are caused by the spatial temperaturedistribution (oven design) in the tempering oven. They occur during theholding time interval. Dynamic temperatures gradients occur in thetempering material, when heat from the outside (oven) is supplied orremoved. Heat transport depends on temperature gradients in thematerial. The magnitudes of these gradients are essentially determinedby heat up and cool down speed. These gradients are described here as“dynamic temperature gradients”. These types of gradients aresuperimposed on each other during the heat up and cool down stages.

After the heat up, i.e. during the holding time at the maximum temperingtemperature static temperature gradients in the radial or axialdirection form in the tempering chamber or space. These gradients arelimited to a maximum of 0.2 K/cm by the oven configuration according tothe invention. Preferably however static radial temperature gradients inthe tempering space of less than 0.013 K/cm and static axial temperaturegradients in the tempering space of less than 0.07 K/cm are guaranteed.

Preferably the curing process takes place in an apparatus, whichproduces a temperature field with a temperature gradient of at most 0.2K/cm, in a region in which the material to be tempered is located.

The apparatus should preferably exclusively comprise highly puregraphite in its interior, in order to prevent contamination of the CaF₂crystals, which can lead to a reduction of the transmission. Preferredgraphite, which comes into contact with CaF₂, has a residual ash contentof less than 20 ppm.

The purity requirements likewise extend to the products to be tempered.Thus prior to coating the apparatus the parts are subjected to a carefulpurification. The parts should be both fat-free and dust-free, and haveno surface moisture or as little surface moisture as possible. Apurification of the parts with fat-dissolving organic solvent at highvapor pressure is preferred. After a successful purification contactwith the parts with bare skin or dirty objects is to be avoided.

At least one scavenger material is preferably used to remove theresidual oxygen present in the apparatus, on the crystal surfaces and/orin the crystal lattice. Compounds, such as ZnF₂, PbF₂, XeF₂ and SnF₂,which are used as solids, have proven to be suitable. It is alsopossible to use a gaseous scavenger after a drying stage. Especiallyfluorine gas, fluorine gas/inert gas mixture, fluorocarbon gases and/orfluoro-hydrocarbon gas are preferable for use as gaseous scavengers. Acombination of solid and gaseous scavengers can also be used.

In a preferred embodiment the tempering is performed using a gaseousscavenger. Fluorine-containing or fluorocarbon gases, for example, CF₄,C₂F₆, C₃F₈ or CHF₃, SF₆ or NF₃, are mixed in a concentration of 1 to50%, especially 5 to 30%, and more preferably 5 to 15%, with an inertgas to form a preferred scavenger gas in the apparatus. Surprisingly thetransmission of the CaF₂ is increased by the use of this sort ofscavenger gas. This effect is not achieved using inert gas, vacuum orpowdery scavenger material.

In an especial preferred embodiment a gas mixture for tempering with theabove-described composition may flow through the apparatus with a flowrate of a few liters per minute during the tempering stage.

Special care regarding purity and freedom from oxygen of all materialsand surfaces found in the apparatus can be left to the scavengermaterial. First drying is performed in a high vacuum in order tocompletely remove surface water and oxygen. The tempering can occur invacuum, but also in an inert gas atmosphere.

The requirements for purity of the solid scavenger materials areessentially the same as for the CaF₂. If, for example, PbF₂ is used asscavenger with the elements Na, Mg, Sr, Ba, Al and the transition metalspurity specifications are kept below 1 ppm for each element.

To avoid contamination, which can ultimately lead to reduction intransmission, it has been shown that the gas used should have a purityof at minimum 99.999%, preferably better than 99.9999%.

The tempering is preferably performed in a reducing atmosphereindependent of the materials and the pressure present in the apparatus.

In a special embodiment of the invention additional CaF₂ powder isintroduced into the tempering vessel. In a further embodiment accordingto the invention a crystal with a larger volume than its desired finalsize or with greater dimensions than its final dimensions is temperedand after tempering the excess material is removed. The tempering itselfusually occurs in an oven and/or other apparatus suitable for thispurpose. Preferably so much edge volume is removed in that apparatusthat the crystal is already at its final dimensions or size. Material ispreferably removed from the crystal center region along the peripheryand/or circumferential outer edge to reduce its height and/or itsdiameter. In a preferred embodiment the increase over the finaldimensions of the crystal amounts to at least 5%, preferably 10%, of thefinal dimensions. An increase in dimensions of +15%, and especially of+20%, is even more preferable. An increase of +25 or +30% is especiallypreferred. The percentage increase in dimensions preferably concerns thediameter and/or height of the crystal. For example, should a finaldimension of the finished crystal be 20 cm, the crystal that is temperedshould have a 20% increase in this dimension, e.g. it should have adiameter of at least 24 cm. The later tempering of the crystal afterremoval of the edge regions, which produces interior elastic residualstress in the crystal, should not take place.

RMS values of refractive index uniformity of better than 0.025×10⁻⁶,especially better than 0.015×10⁻⁶, can be obtained in CaF₂ crystals bythe procedure according to the invention. Values of the stressbirefringence (SDB) in nm/cm for these CaF₂ crystals are listed in thefollowing Table I. TABLE I STRESS BIREFRINGENCE (in nm/cm) VERSUSORIENTATION <100> or <111>- <100> or <110>- <111>- orientation, <110>-orientation, orientation, especially orientation, especially preferredpreferred preferred preferred SDB-PV value 0.5 0.2 2.5 1 SDB-RMS 0.150.08 1 0.35 value

The method according to the invention is suitable for making crystals ofall shapes and all orientations. Thus, for example, without more it ispossible to obtain crystals which are approximately stress-free in the(100)- or (110)-direction instead of the (111)-direction, which was notpossible up to now with the prior art methods.

In a preferred embodiment according to the invention a small temperaturegradient is produced during tempering, which is oriented at an angle ofat least 5° to the glide plane.

The direction of the maximum temperature gradient is at the same timethe direction of the highest stresses. Since the crystal experiences aplastic deformation only along a definite glide direction on a definiteglide plane only the stress acting to deform the crystals in this glidesystem is relevant for the deformation.

In the case of CaF₂ the principle glide plane is the (100) plane. If themaximum temperature gradient occurs parallel to or perpendicular to thesurface of the 100-disk, the stresses are completely effective in theglide system. By tilting the disk orientation the effective stresses arereduced. In the case of the (111)-orientation (the angle between the111-surface and the 100-glide plane amounts to 54.73°) these effectivestress components are clearly reduced. The best conceivable case in thissense would be a (110)-orientation. In this case however the second(auxiliary)-glide system with 110 as glide system would be extremelywell oriented and activated.

The angle between the glide direction and the direction of maximumtemperature gradient is preferably greater than 10°. For CaF₂ crystalsand structures comparable to them angles of from 25° to 36° areespecially preferred.

In other crystal systems also larger angles can be attained. Accordingto the teaching of the present invention it is preferable to adjust theangle between the glide direction and the direction of the temperaturegradient so that it is as large as possible.

In an especially preferred embodiment the crystal is tempered in its(111)-orientation and of course so that its (111)-axis is parallel tothe axis of the tempering oven that is use. Thus it is preferred thatthe radial temperature gradient produced in the tempering oven isdirected parallel to the earth's surface, i.e. perpendicular to thedirection in which gravity acts.

The spatial temperature distribution throughout the entire crystalvolume results from an overlap of a static temperature gradient(apparatus-dependent temperature distribution) with a dynamictemperature gradient, which arises because of the heating up and coolingdown of the crystal. The former dominates the holding time, the lattercomes into play during the heat up and cool down of the crystal.

It is imperative for the tempering according to the invention that theheat supplied from the outside to the crystal during heating of thecrystal produces a small temperature gradient, which is not too large.This gradient should be such that temperature differences betweendifferent points in the crystal amount to no more than 5° C. Preferablythe upper limit of the temperature difference is at most 2° C., but amaximum of 1° C. is especially preferred. It is also preferred thatthese maximum temperatures differences do not occur in an interiorvolume region of the crystal, i.e. in a region which is spaced adistance of at least 10% of the crystal diameter from the crystal edge.Although it is not preferred slightly higher temperature differencesthan the above-mentioned differences can exist in this edge region.

The extreme requirements for freedom from stress in the crystal areespecially fulfilled when the dynamic temperature gradients during theheat up stage and, to the extent that it is still significant, duringthe cooling stage are reduced so that they are the same or only notsignificantly greater than the static temperature gradients during theholding time at the maximum temperature.

Preferably the curing process runs in an apparatus, which guaranteesstatic radial temperature gradients of less than 0.013 K/cm and staticaxial temperature gradients of less than 0.07 K/cm in the region, inwhich the material to be tempered is located.

In a preferred embodiment of the invention during tempering the crystalis covered by a graphite member. The graphite member preferablycomprises a graphite mat or a graphite plates. The graphite plateassists in reducing the temperature gradients in the tempering material,since uniform heat transfer occurs to and from the crystal. The graphitecover has good heat conductivity. It is preferable to perform thetempering by means of heating elements or sources arrange laterally inthe oven so that the resulting gradients in the crystal are lateral,i.e. parallel to the earth's surface. However it is also possible toperform the heating during tempering by means of top and bottom heaters;in this latter type of heating it has proven to be appropriate to putespecially good heat conducting graphite plates on the crystal.

In a further aspect of the present invention the special materialproperties, which result from using directions, which differ from the(111)-direction, should be considered in controlling the process duringtempering. It has been shown that it is necessary to keep thetemperature gradients significantly smaller than in the currently knowntempering process for calcium fluoride not only during the holdingstage, but also during the heat up and cool down stages of the temperingprocess in order to achieve smaller stress birefringence.

During the heat up stage heating rates are set less than 18 K/haccording to the invention, preferably less than 12 K/h, but heatingrates of less than 10 K/h are especially preferred. According to theinvention it has now been found that small heating rates are essentialin order to achieve good tempering results. It has been shown namelythat during the heat up defects generated in the case of blanks that arenot (111)-oriented are essentially more troublesome in the final productand are also essentially more difficult to relax (during the holdingtime).

According to the present invention very small cooling rates aremaintained during cooling, which can be especially small in the uppertemperature range and somewhat larger in the lower temperature range,which saves time and costs. The transition temperature, at which thecooling rate changed from a very small value to a small cooling rate, isbetween 900° C. and 600° C. The higher the quality of the product, thelower the transition temperature.

According to the invention cooling rates are maintained, which amount toless than 0.5 K/h, preferably less than 0.4 K/h, and especiallypreferably less than 0.3 K/h, in the upper temperature range of thecooling stage.

The cooling rates in the lower temperature range may not be increasedover 3 K/h, preferably not over 2 K/h, and especially preferably notover 1.7 K/h, according to the invention.

Below the temperature range of 900° C. to 600° C. the cooling rate canbe increased to minimize processing time and thus costs connected withit. The increase of the cooling rate can be performed in a single step,however it can also occur in several steps. The temperature rates in thelower temperature range according to the invention may not be increasedover 3 K/h, preferably not over 2 K/h, and especially preferably notover 1.7 K/h, according to the invention.

The method according to the invention is suitable for making crystals ofall forms and all orientations. Thus for example it is possible withoutmore to obtain crystals that are stress-free in the (100)-direction orthe (110)-direction instead of the (111)-direction, which has not beenpossible up to the present.

The invention also relates of the use of the crystals obtained by themethod for optical purposes, especially as blanks and/or half-finishedarticles for optical elements. Microlithography, usuallymicrolithography at <250 nm, especially at 248 nm and/or at 193 nm andpreferably at 157 nm, is a preferred application of the crystalsobtained by the method according to the invention.

The optical elements obtained according to the invention especiallyinclude prisms and lenses, which are used in optical arrangements,especially objectives. When they are used in microlithography andphotography, generally steppers, excimer lasers, wafers and computerchips are made with them as well as integrated circuits and electronicdevices, which should contain those circuits and electronic devices.

The following example is illustrative of the method according to theinvention, but should not be considered to limit the appended claims.

EXAMPLE

A single crystal made by the Bridgeman-Stockbarger method with adiameter of 250 mm and a height of 60 mm is placed in a graphite vessel.PbF₂ powder is added as a scavenger material. The residual moisture isremoved from the processing chamber by a twelve-hour drying stage.Subsequently an Ar/CF₄ mixture is supplied to the apparatus until apressure of 1050 mbar is reached. The pressure is controlled so that itis constant at a flow rate of 10 I/h throughout the entire process. Thecrystal is heated at a rate of 20 K/h to a temperature of 1130°. Thistemperature is maintained for 80 h. After that cooling takes placeaccording to the following temperature recipe: Cooling to 900° C. with arate of −0.3 K/h followed by cooling to 650° C. with a rate of −0.6 K/hfollowed by cooling to room temperature with a rate of −1.8 K/h. Acrystal disk made according to this procedure had a stress birefringenceof below 0.9 nm/cm (PV value) and 0.31 nm/cm (RMS value) in the(100)-direction. The RMS value of the uniformity of refractive index is0.014×10⁻⁶. The transmission at a wavelength of 157 nm is improved byabout 5%.

The disclosure in German Patent Application 10 2004 008 752.0 of Feb.23, 2004 is incorporated here by reference. This German PatentApplication describes the invention described hereinabove and claimed inthe claims appended hereinbelow and provides the basis for a claim ofpriority for the instant invention under 35 U.S.C. 119.

While the invention has been illustrated and described as embodied in amethod of making large-volume CaF₂ single crystals for optical elementswith an optic axis parallel to the (100)- or (110)-crystal axis and CaF₂single crystal made thereby, it is not intended to be limited to thedetails shown, since various modifications and changes may be madewithout departing in any way from the spirit of the present invention.

Without further analysis, the foregoing will so fully reveal the gist ofthe present invention that others can, by applying current knowledge,readily adapt it for various applications without omitting featuresthat, from the standpoint of prior art, fairly constitute essentialcharacteristics of the generic or specific aspects of this invention.

What is claimed is new and is set forth in the following appendedclaims.

1. A method of making a highly uniform, low-stress single crystal, saidmethod including tempering the crystal and said method comprising thesteps of: a) heating the crystal at a temperature increase rate of lessthan 18 K/h to a temperature between 1000° C. and 1350° C. to temper thecrystal; b) holding the crystal at said temperature reached during theheating of step a) for at least 65 hours, so that temperaturedifferences up to a maximum value of 0.2 K are present within thecrystal during the holding; c) subsequently cooling the crystal in atemperature range above a limiting temperature between 900° C. and 600°C. with a cooling rate that is at maximum equal to 0.5 K/h; and then d)cooling to temperatures below said temperature range with a cooling ratethat is at maximum equal to 3 K/h.
 2. The method as defined in claim 1,wherein said temperature increase rate during the heating is less than10 K/h.
 3. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the tempering ofthe crystal occurs in an apparatus, in which a reducing atmosphere ispresent.
 4. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the tempering ofthe crystal occurs in the presence of at least one solid materialselected from the group consisting of PbF₂, ZnF₂ and XeF₂.
 5. The methodas defined in claim 1, wherein temperature differences up to a maximumvalue of 0.3 K are present within the crystal during the cooling of thecrystal occurring above said limiting temperature between 900° C. and600° C.
 6. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the crystaltempered in the tempering is in the form of a cylindrical body,independent from geometries of products formed later from the crystal.7. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the tempering occurs in anapparatus, and further comprising producing a vacuum of at least 10⁻⁴mbar in the apparatus prior to the tempering in order to remove residualmoisture and providing a pressure of 10 to 1050 mbar in the apparatusduring the tempering.
 8. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein thecrystal is a calcium fluoride crystal.
 9. The method as defined in claim1, wherein the crystal has an optical quality that is sufficient foroptical applications in directions different from a (111)-direction andsaid directions different from said (111)-direction include a(100)-direction and a (110)-direction.
 10. A homogeneous calciumfluoride crystal with improved transmission obtained by a method asdefined in claim 1 and having an RMS average value of refractive indexuniformity (Δn)<0.025×10⁻⁶ in a (111)-direction, a (100)-directionand/or a (110) direction and having a PV value of the stressbirefringence of less than 2.5 nm/cm and/or an RMS average value of thestress birefringence of less than 1 nm/cm in the (100)-direction and/orthe (110)-direction and having a PV value of the stress birefringence ofless than 0.5 nm/cm and/or an RMS average value of the stressbirefringence of less than 0.15 nm/cm in the (111)-direction.
 11. Thehomogenous calcium fluoride crystal as defined in claim 10, wherein saidRMS average value of said refractive index uniformity (Δn) is<0.015×10⁻⁶ in said (111)-direction, said (100)-direction and/or said(110) direction; said PV value of the stress birefringence is less than0.2 nm/cm and/or said RMS average value of the stress birefringence isless than 0.08 nm/cm in the (111)-direction and/or said PV value of thestress birefringence is less than 1 nm/cm and/or said RMS average valueof the stress birefringence is less than 0.35 nm/cm in the(100)-direction and/or the (110)-direction.
 12. A stepper, excimerlaser, wafer, computer chip or integrated circuit containing a crystalas defined in claim 10 acting as an optical element.
 13. An electronicunit or device containing a computer chip and/or an integrated circuit,wherein said computer chip and said integrated circuit each contain acrystal as defined in claim
 10. 14. A stepper, excimer laser, wafer,computer chip or integrated circuit containing a crystal obtained by themethod as defined in claim 1, which acts as an optical element with anoptical axis or principle propagation direction that is not in a(111)-direction, wherein said crystal is a homogeneous calcium fluoridecrystal having an RMS average value of refractive index uniformity(Δn)<0.025×10⁻⁶ in the (111)-direction, a (100)-direction and/or a(110)-direction and having a PV value of the stress birefringence ofless than 2.5 nm/cm and/or an RMS average value of the stressbirefringence of less than 1 nm/cm in the 100-direction and/or the(110)-direction and having a PV value of the stress birefringence ofless than 0.5 nm/cm and/or an RMS average value of the stressbirefringence of less than 0.15 nm/cm in the (111)-direction.
 15. Anelectronic unit or device containing a computer chip and/or anintegrated circuit, wherein said computer chip and said integratedcircuit each contain a crystal obtained by the method as defined inclaim 1, which acts as an optical element with an optical axis orprinciple propagation direction that is not in a (111)-direction, andwherein said crystal is a homogeneous calcium fluoride crystal having anRMS average value of refractive index uniformity (Δn) <0.025×10⁻⁶ in the(111)-direction, a (100)-direction and/or a (110)-direction and having aPV value of the stress birefringence of less than 2.5 nm/cm and/or anRMS average value of the stress birefringence of less than 1 nm/cm in a100-direction and/or (110)-direction and having a PV value of the stressbirefringence of less than 0.5 nm/cm and/or an RMS average value of thestress birefringence of less than 0.15 nm/cm in the (111)-direction.